Upward Social Mobility
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Introduction
According to Giazitzoglu (2017), social mobility refers to the movement of a person, household, or group of individuals from one social position to the other. Upward social mobility denotes the change in social status and wealth of different individuals in the society. An individual ability to move from one social status to the other hugely depends on their social, economic, cultural and human capital. Sometimes social mobility is intergenerational, for instance, when children attain a lower or a higher status then what their parents had. Other times, social mobility is intra-generational, such that an individual changes their social status in their lifetime. For several decades, some Americans have found it hard to climb the economic ladder through earning higher salaries than their parents and this has led to the decline in social mobility in the U.S.
Describe and explain how we can best understand why access to upward social mobility has diminished in the US
Stagnating wage growth
One of the critical factors behind the U.S deteriorating upward mobility is the slow pace at which wages are growing. For instance, in 1964, the average hourly wage when converted to 2018 dollars is $20.28 while 2018 hourly wage was $22.67. This only represents about 11.8% growth in a period of about 54 years. In the U.S, today’s hourly wage has almost the similar purchasing power as it did in 1978. The $4.02 an hour average rate in early 1973 has the same purchasing power as $23.69 wage rate has today (Giazitzoglu, 2017). Wage gains have only benefited the higher earners in the U.S. The prices of some services and commodities have risen over time while others have become truly affordable. For example, since early 1998, prices for some electronics such as cellphones and Televisions have dropped therefore making them more affordable. Globalization more so in the manufacturing sector has flooded the U.S market with a variety of cheap goods from China and in the process sapped domestic-manufacturing wages. Since 1979, only a few college graduates have experienced a rise in their pay. Conversely, most high school graduates have experienced a cut in their pay.
Unequal income distribution
It refers to how the total gross domestic product of a nation is equally distributed amongst the country’s population. Over the last 5 decades the share of the U.S aggregate income has risen among the upper income class from 28% to 48% while it has significantly declined among the middle income earners, from 62% to 43%. Lipset & Bendix (2018) noted that the share of the U.S aggregate income has remained almost the same among the lower income earners, from 10% in the early 1970s to 9% in 2019. Income inequality is one of the leading factors for a declining upward mobility in the U.S. Some of the major causes of income inequality are the availability of cheap labor from China, job outsourcing and unfair exchange rates. The United States firms must steadily compete with lower-priced Chinese companies who pay their employees much less.
Regardless of the gains in national income over the past half century, most American households in the middle class have experienced little income growth. Due to the income inequality in the U.S, it is hard for a worker for more so the middle and low income earners to move up the income ladder. Individuals who used to make earn little in their first jobs in the early 1980s still earn meager salaries in the 2000s. Conversely, people who started earning hefty salaries in the 1980s in the U.S continue to make huge wages throughout their career lives. The gap between the rich and the poor in the U.S is at the highest in the last five decades.
A declining culture of social capital
Social capital refers to the relationships and networks among people, and is usually characterized by trust, reliance and reciprocity. The traditional working social capital in the U.S has been on a downward trend in the last few decades. Social capital is vital as it help individuals to learn about employment opportunities and get hired. Social contacts play a crucial role in job referrals. Individuals within the low income bracket lack social connections to better job opportunities and institutions such as higher education that are crucial for upward social mobility. Also, with such individuals, relationships with friends and family may be limited due to the ability to reciprocate. Most low income earners have low or no connections to high status people that can offer vital economic opportunities (Lipset & Bendix, 2018). In the U.S, there has been a widespread decline in the social capital culture thereby leading to a diminishing access to an upward social mobility.
Describe and explain the ways class, race/ethnicity, sex/gender, and age work for, or against, social mobility in the US
Gender pay gap
Throughout the twentieth century, the average American woman received about 60% what the average American man earned. The median pay for men is approximately 19% higher than the median pay for women. When men and women with the similar job characteristics do the same job, the American women make about $0.98 for every dollar earned by the American man. A woman doing the same work as a man with exact qualifications and experience is still paid 2% less for no valid reason. Gender pay gap is one of the leading gender related contributions to the diminishing upward social mobility in the U.S. It is a major unconscious bias against women with assumptions that women should earn less even when they have similar qualifications. Gender pay gap in the U.S portrays the predominant patriarchy in today’s society.
Racial gaps in employment and education
The rates of high school drop outs are higher among the Hispanics as compared to the whites. Also, the college enrolment is highest among the whites as compared to the African-American. White workers have lower rates of unemployment than the Hispanics and the blacks (“Social class as the context of social mobility,” 2018). Racial profiling in the job market is still rampant and this has significantly contributed to the decline in social mobility in the U.S. Notably, Hispanic unemployment for both women and men rose more sharply than it did during the great recession.
Age stratification
The age of the working population is a major factor that hugely influences the social mobility in the U.S. A rise in the older population leads to a decline in social mobility as most of them have no permanent income. The U.S is facing an unmatched rise in the older population. Individuals aged 65 years and above comprise of about 13% of the U.S population. The growth rate is expected to double in the next three decades. As the number of older individuals in the U.S rise, the concern for their economic stability rises (“Social class as the context of social mobility,” 2018). This is because most of the older people have no pension hence they do not significantly contribute to the upward social mobility of the nation. Approximately, 14.5% of the senior citizens in the U.S live below the poverty line. As a huge proportion of the individuals in U.S approach their retirement, more demand is placed on their social security as this is what most will depend on after their retirement. Notably, the young and vibrant population significantly influences the social mobility in the U.S. They have the energy to work and most of them can take up to two jobs.
Social class and economic segregation
Different individuals in the U.S fall under different social classes such the rich, middle class and the poor. Social status groups different individuals based on their income, occupation, wealth and their social network. An individual’s social class hierarchy has long-term impacts on their family life, health and education. This in return leads to rise in an individual’s the social mobility. The rich or upper class have better access to good education, healthcare and live lavish lifestyles. Such people have elite social networks hence they have quick access to individual in powerful positions. Such networks are significant, for instance, when seeking for employment opportunities.
The middle class and the poor have limited access to powerful individuals hence scarce job opportunities. An individual’s social economic status is one of the primary determinants of a person’s health outcome (OpenStax, 2020). The rich receive satisfactory medical care when compared to the middle class and the poor. The poor experience different health problems due to their economic position. They have limited chances to use better healthcare facilities as compared to the rich in the society. Therefore, the social class an individual is influences their social mobility in the society.
Conclusion
To wind, the paper has extensively discussed why access to upward social mobility has diminished in the US and the ways class, race/ethnicity, sex/gender, and age work for, or against, social mobility in the US. Social mobility happens when changes in the society enable individuals to move down or up the social class ladder. Social mobility is hugely dependent to the diverse changes in the society as a whole and not to individual changes. A high level of upward social mobility is frequently considered commendable as it is viewed as a great sign of equality of opportunities in the society.
References
Giazitzoglu, A. (2017). Experiencing upward mobility. Social Mobility for the 21st Century, 105-117. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351996808-9
Lipset, S. M., & Bendix, R. (2018). Social mobility and social structure. Social Mobility in Industrial Society, 260-287. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351306362-13
OpenStax. (2020). Introduction to Sociology (2nd ed.). OpenStaxSociology Cap.
Social class as the context of social mobility. (2018). Social Mobility and Education in Britain, 13-33. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108567404.002