Upward Social Mobility
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Introduction
According to Giazitzoglu (2017), social mobility refers to the movement of a person, household, or group of individuals from one social position to another. Upward social mobility denotes the change in social status and wealth of different individuals in the society. An individual ability to move from one social position to the other hugely depends on their social, economic, cultural, and human capital. Sometimes social mobility is intergenerational, for instance, when children attain a lower or higher status than their parents. Other times, social mobility is intra-generational, such that an individual changes their social status in their lifetime. For several decades, some Americans have found it hard to climb the economic ladder by earning higher salaries than their parents, and this has led to a decline in social mobility in the U.S.
Describe and explain how we can best understand why access to upward social mobility has diminished in the U.S.
Stagnating wage growth
One of the critical factors behind the U.S. deteriorating upward mobility is the slow pace at which wages are growing. For instance, in 1964, the average hourly salary converted to 2018 dollars is $20.28, while the 2018 hourly wage was $22.67. This only represents about 11.8% growth in nearly 54 years. In the U.S., today’s hourly wage has almost a similar purchasing power as it did in 1978. The $4.02 an hour average rate in early 1973 has the same purchasing power as the $23.69 wage rate has today (Giazitzoglu, 2017). Wage gains have only benefited the higher earners in the U.S. The prices of some services and commodities have risen over time, while others have become genuinely affordable. For example, since early 1998, prices for electronics such as cellphones and Televisions have dropped, making them more accessible. More so, in the manufacturing sector, globalization has flooded the U.S. market with a variety of cheap goods from China and, in the process, sapped domestic-manufacturing wages. Since 1979, only a few college graduates have experienced a rise in their pay. Conversely, most high school graduates have experienced a cut in their income.
Unequal income distribution
It refers to how the total gross domestic product is equally distributed amongst the country’s population. Over the last five decades, the U.S. aggregate income share has risen among the upper-income class from 28% to 48%. It has significantly declined among the middle-income earners, from 62% to 43%. Lipset & Bendix (2018) noted that the U.S. aggregate income share had remained almost the same among the lower-income earners, from 10% in the early 1970s to 9% in 2019. Income inequality is one of the leading factors for declining upward mobility in the U.S. Some of the significant income inequality causes are cheap labor from China, job outsourcing, and unfair exchange rates. The United States firms must steadily compete with lower-priced Chinese companies who pay their employees much less.
Regardless of the gains in national income over the past half-century, most American households in the middle class have experienced little income growth. Due to income inequality in the U.S., it is hard for a worker for more so middle and low-income earners to move up the income ladder. Individuals who used to earn little in their first jobs in the early 1980s still earn meager salaries in the 2000s. Conversely, people who started earning hefty wages in the 1980s in the U.S. continue to make huge wages throughout their career lives. The gap between the rich and the poor in the U.S. is highest in the last five decades.
A declining culture of social capital
Social capital refers to the relationships and networks among people, usually characterized by trust, reliance, and reciprocity. The traditional working social capital in the U.S. has been on a downward trend in the last few decades. Social capital is vital as it helps individuals to learn about employment opportunities and get hired. Social contacts play a crucial role in job referrals. Individuals within the low-income bracket lack social connections to better job opportunities and higher education institutions essential for upward social mobility. Also, with such individuals, relationships with friends and family may be limited due to reciprocating. Most low-income earners have low or no connections to high-status people that can offer vital economic opportunities (Lipset & Bendix, 2018). There has been a widespread decline in the social capital culture in the U.S., thereby leading to diminishing access to upward social mobility.
Describe and explain class, race/ethnicity, sex/gender, and age work for, or against, social mobility in the U.S.
Gender pay gap
Throughout the twentieth century, the average American woman received about 60% of what the middle American man earned. The median pay for men is approximately 19% higher than the median wage for women. When men and women with similar job characteristics do the same job, the American women make about $0.98 for every dollar earned by the American man. A woman doing the same work as a man with exact qualifications and experience is still paid 2% less for no valid reason. The gender pay gap is one of the leading gender-related contributions to the diminishing upward social mobility in the U.S. It is a significant unconscious bias against women with assumptions that women should earn less even when they have similar qualifications. The gender pay gap in the U.S. portrays the predominant patriarchy in today’s society.
Racial gaps in employment and education
The rates of high school dropouts are higher among Hispanics as compared to whites. Also, the college enrolment is highest among the whites as compared to the African-American. White workers have lower unemployment rates than the Hispanics and the blacks (“Social class as the context of social mobility,” 2018). Racial profiling in the job market is still rampant. This has significantly contributed to the decline in social mobility in the U.S. Notably, Hispanic unemployment for both women and men rose more sharply than it did during the great recession.
Age stratification
The working population’s age is a significant factor that hugely influences the social mobility in the U.S. A rise in older people leads to a decline in social mobility, as most of them have no permanent income. The U.S. is facing an unmatched increase in the more aging population. Individuals aged 65 years and above comprise about 13% of the U.S. population. The growth rate is expected to double in the next three decades. As the number of older individuals in the U.S. rise, the concern for their economic stability rises (“Social class as the context of social mobility,” 2018). This is because most of the older people have no pension; hence, they do not significantly contribute to the nation’s upward social mobility. Approximately 14.5% of the senior citizens in the U.S. live below the poverty line. As a considerable proportion of the U.S. individuals approach their retirement, more demand is placed on their social security, as this is what most will depend on after their retirement. Notably, the young and vibrant population significantly influences the social mobility in the U.S. They have the energy to work, and most of them can take up to two jobs.
Social class and economic segregation
Different individuals in the U.S. fall under other social classes such as the wealthy, middle class, and the poor. Social status groups of diverse individuals based on their income, occupation, wealth, and social network. An individual’s social class hierarchy has long-term impacts on their family life, health, and education. It, in return, leads to a rise in an individual’s social mobility. The wealthy or upper class have better access to good education, healthcare, and lavish lifestyles. Such people have elite social networks; hence they have quick access to an individual in powerful positions. Such systems are significant, for instance, when seeking employment opportunities.
The middle class and the poor have limited access to influential individuals hence scarce job opportunities. An individual’s social, economic status is one of the primary determinants of a person’s health outcome (OpenStax, 2020). The rich receive satisfactory medical care when compared to the middle class and the poor. The poor experience different health problems due to their economic position in society. They have limited chances to use better healthcare facilities as compared to the rich in the society. Therefore, the social class and individual influence their social mobility in society.
Conclusion
The paper has extensively discussed why access to upward social mobility has diminished in the U.S. and the ways class, race/ethnicity, sex/gender, and age work for, or against, social mobility in the U.S. Social mobility happens when changes in the society enable individuals to move down or up the social class ladder. Social mobility is hugely dependent on the various changes in society as a whole and not individual differences. A high level of upward social mobility is frequently considered commendable as it is viewed as a great sign of equality of opportunities in society.
References
Giazitzoglu, A. (2017). Experiencing upward mobility. Social Mobility for the 21st Century, 105-117. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351996808-9
Lipset, S. M., & Bendix, R. (2018). Social mobility and social structure. Social Mobility in Industrial Society, 260-287. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351306362-13
OpenStax. (2020). Introduction to Sociology (2nd ed.). OpenStaxSociology Cap.
Social class as the context of social mobility. (2018). Social Mobility and Education in Britain, 13-33. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108567404.002