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The History of American Sports
Major American sports originated and developed in the 19th century as upper-class individuals sought to replicate the action of the English club system. The wealthy elite groups established clubs throughout the country during the 19th century though these were not popular with the American people. However, the athletic clubs did not become popular with the people until later in the century following the establishment of the profit-oriented league system. Thus, most pre-modern sports such as golf, tennis, and baseball evolved into modern sports by the late 19th and early 20th century.
One sport that developed in the 19th century was harness racing. The sport originated among the middle-class people and was most preferred due to the availability of horse and buggy mode of transport (10). Harness racing was the most accessible sport that the people could engage in as both the horse and the buggy were the preferred means of transport for the growing middle-class population. Therefore, individuals with a horse and buggy were free to participate. Also, the sport was most preferred because it was more inclusive than the thoroughbred horse racing. The horses that were used for the sport to pull the buggies were not of any particular breed. At the time, it was not expensive to own and maintain a horse. Also, the horses would be used to pull wagons during the day and then required to race in the evenings. Thus, the sport was not only cheap, but people could use the horses and buddy for their work and entertainment.
The origins and development of harness racing as a sport reflect the economic and social changes that resulted in contemporary responses to them. Ideally, the local middle class found it easy to participate in the sport as they could utilize the horse and buggy that was available to them (11). Therefore, harness racing was more of a middle-class sport than of the wealthy and elites of the society. Among those that were likely to participate in the sport were the shopkeepers, artisans, clerks, dock workers, among others. Therefore, the middle class were willing to pay a certain admission fee to subsidize the cost of the event. Consequently, the promoters of the sport relied on the spectators’ interest, resulting in heightened participation. Resultantly, harness racing became the most popular type of sport in the United States by the 1830s.
However, horse racing did not evolve into a modern sport. An analysis of the sport using Alden’s framework reveals a lack of transition from the pre-modern phase. Unlike thoroughbred racing, harness racing did not utilize a formal management structure. The contests would be managed by individuals such as track owners and race promoters. Since harness racing was a sprint, the horses quickly recovered and could compete regularly. Additionally, various horse breeds could participate, meaning that there was a large field of competitors. Consequently, the public enjoyed more excitement, races and gambling opportunity. The entrepreneurs also depended on the gate revenues as a source of livelihood, and the promoters tried to match horses against each other to intensify spectator interest. Nevertheless, the event was characterized by a lack of formal rules resulting in incidences of race-fixing and poor promoter reputation. Thus, the poor management of the sporting event resulted in its decline, causing it to lose appeal.
Another significant sporting activity that was developed and originated in the 19th century was baseball. Leagues replaced harness racing as an effective sports management system. The profit-oriented league was a pioneer project of baseball organizers in the 1870s (14). Consequently, baseball was among the first sports to utilize the league structure. However, only the best teams such as Cincinnati Red Stockings gained the interest of fans though this changed after several game losses. Other upcoming teams were divided along social and class lines depending on their ability to pay their players’ salaries. The National Association of Professional Baseball players was later founded in 1871 and clubs with an ability to pay elite players were allowed to join the group. However, the association depended on the patronage of the elite members. Participants also engaged in the haphazard participation and the financial interest of the clubs superseded the association’s needs. While these events threatened the sport’s ability to transition from the pre-modern to the modern phase, Hulbert’s ascension to the realm of management fostered positive changes.
Hulbert’s ascension to the league’s management position resulted in an effective baseball structure and rules that resulted in better synergy among teams. Hulbert also ensured that teams completed their schedules, whether they operated at a loss or profit, resulting in high levels of competitiveness. The action also heightened the public’s faith in the new structure and spurned their interest in watching basketball games. Baseball also became highly popular during the Victorian period. During this time, Middle America adhered to strict cultural conventions that dictated how they lived and interacted with one another. Most people in the country adhered to the religious regulations that forbade them from gambling and drinking, although the two were staples of America’s sporting culture (15). Therefore, Hulbert needed to create a product that aligned with the cultural conventions of the middle and upper classes. In response, he prohibited gambling and betting at the National League ballparks. He also forbade the people from playing games on Sunday and trading in alcohol at the parks. Clubs that failed to comply with the no-liquor rule set by the league were ultimately expelled.
In compliance with the people’s cultural and religious alignment, Hulbert banned any unhealthy behavior at the parks. He then raised ticket rates to minimize attendance by the working-class patrons, and ensure that the games attracted those from higher social classes. A vital premise of the Victorian culture is that being astute is synonymous to a strong moral character. Consequently, the leader owners necessitated that the players maintain a clean image. Therefore, gambling would be permanently banned from the league with the need to foster the idea that one’s appearance dramatically affects their effort (15). A notion of biological distinctions also characterized the Victorian culture. The culture believed in the existence of ethnic and racial distinctions among groups. Consequently, the National league championed this notion by prohibiting the African American individuals from participating in basketball events. However, some minor and major leagues still had blacks in their roasters until the late 1880s. Nevertheless, the effect of the ban extended to all-white baseball leagues by 1888.
Nonetheless, baseball evolved into a modern sport owing to the influence of Hulbert’s leadership. An analysis of the sport using Aldeman’s framework has shown that Hulbert transformed the organization of the league from sporadic to a formal one. He came up with various management rules such as restricting the use of alcohol and immoral conduct at the parks among others. It is these rules that influenced the management and conduct of players during the game. For instance, the rule on ensuring that all players participate in the league throughout the season heightened competition and responsibility among teams. Thus, Hulbert’s management structure transformed baseball from a pre-modern to modern sport.
However, not all sports that developed in the 19th century were organized using the league structure. Certain sports such as tennis and golf emanated from the club system of organization. Private clubs were responsible for financing and overseeing the early tournaments for the benefits of its members. By the beginning of the 20th century, Corcoran oversaw the development of professional golf by involving the input of various celebrities (18). Following the proven approach of boxing promoters and baseball owners, various individuals produced golf events by selling tickets and operating concessions. Presently, various tournaments like golf, tennis, among others have adopted a formal structure. The events are not only considered as a source of entertainment but also as mediums of exposure for individuals. Consequently, there is a clear distinction between spectators and players. The PGA is also responsible for setting rules of eligibility. The tournaments are also marketed through broadcast media such as ESPN and NBC Sports (18). Therefore, based on their organization, marketing and actualization, these games satisfy Aldeman’s framework on what constitutes modern sports.
Overall, most contemporary sports such as baseball, golf, tennis among others have evolved from pre-modern to a modern nature. These sports presently embody Aldeman’s definition of modern sports as characterized by their formal organization and their utility of rules during games. They are also competitive, have a definitive role and are characterized by vast amounts of public information.
Works Cited
Crosset, Todd W., and Mary A. Hums. “History of Sport Management.” Principles and Practice of Sport Management, 2012, pp. 3-25.