Social Work and Human service
(1)
In presenting definitions of terms required in number one, the following is presented; Emergency is defined according to Henry (13) as an instantaneous or predicted event that puts life or resources in danger. Due to such events, normal schemes are discontinued, and extra-ordinary actions are put in place to prevent a disaster (13). Disaster, on the other hand, is defined as an occurrence interrupting the normal contingencies of continuation and prompting a level of distress that goes beyond the scope of improvements of the affected community (Henry, 3). About catastrophe, Henry (13) defines it as a result of a disaster so severe that community ceases to exist or its continued survival is drawn into question
(2)
Natural hazards are natural occurrences whose cause is not human-made. They include but are not limited to; floods, wildfires, tornadoes, earthquakes, hurricanes, extreme weather events, droughts, storms, and heat (Henry, 2). On the other hand, technological hazards are disastrous occurrences whose cause is linked to human-caused (anthropogenic). Such occurrences include; fires most likely to be triggered by lightning, human neglect, or intentional actions. Soil spillovers, hazardous and nuclear material accidents, industrial fires, ecological and economic challenges. In comparing the two, natural hazards are more familiar to people than technological hazards because their occurrences have been more frequent. Natural disasters are sudden and powerful events whose effects are more alarming than technological hazards.
Under natural hazards, two hazards identified include earthquakes and hurricanes. About the earthquakes, the world has witnessed many of them whose impacts have been felt worldwide. In 1906, San Francisco experienced one of the biggest earthquakes whose impact is still remembered up to today. According to (Henry 32), this earthquake was two in one. It affected both the people of Oregon and went as far as Los Angele. However, the focus was on the 7.7Mg Earthquake in San Francisco. The best example is the July 1926 hurricane that hit Palm Beach (Henry, 43). Nevertheless, it has become a habit of resort owners to suppress such occurrences due to its negative effects on businesses such as scaring away investors and tourists. For this reason, even the death toll figures as a result of the 1926 hurricane were suppressed.
Concerning technological hazards, Henry (7) posits that Ukraine experienced a hazard whose occurrence was due to an increase in power, causing reactivity. It took place at Chernobyl NPP Unit 4 in Pripyat, Ukraine. This hazard’s identified risk is a catastrophic steam explosion, a series of additional explosions, and a nuclear meltdown. The second hazard is pollution with organic/inorganic compounds. For instance, the 1967 flint that took place in Michigan serves as the best example of this. According to Henry (9), Michigan started receiving its water from Detroit’s water system, whose water source is Lake Huron best known for having polluted water due to industrial runoff. Under this hazard, two risks associated are rust of the water strips and health complications.
(3)
Each of the mentioned hazards above is responsible for causing additional risks. To start with, earthquakes generate a powerful intensity on structures like buildings, dams, and bridges, which on their collapse, destroy a lot of property and lead to massive deaths. Similarly, hurricanes also come with strong storms and large battering waves that lead to erosion of buildings, beaches, bridges, and severe damage. With the case of bayous and estuaries, saltwater’s intrusion into open grounds is most likely to endanger the environment and public health. About reactivity due to power increase, it is associated with later vigorous condensation capable of producing more energy than the surrounding can safely contain. Also, temperatures of the reaction mass sometimes force the reaction to increase, affecting large areas.
- 2
(1)
Following the 9/11 disaster, the government took various steps by making specific changes. Among the changes include; passing legislation by congress to establish an umbrella carbonate under the department of domestic security. This also falls under the department of home security (Henry, 34). Also, the movement of FEMA into DHS as a component. The implication for this change was a lost direct connection to the president. The functions of preparedness were also removed from FEMA with a single focus directed only on terrorism as a hazard (Henry, 34). Additionally, the Federal Response Plan (FRP) has also been revisited and modified into what is currently known as the National Response Plan (NRP). Many of the positive elements of FRP have been maintained in the new NRP. However, most of its focus has been changed only to respond to a terrorist hazard. In the NRP, terrorist hazard has been identified as a priority in the hands of federal governments.
These changes have impacted the emergency management policy in various ways. First, today’s policy faces an issue of the imbalance of focus, most especially between natural disasters and homeland security. This is a challenge mostly felt while trying to incorporate the public in plans of preparedness. There is also a considerable amount of luck in partnership with the business community. Evidently, efforts of a private-public partnership are failing. Also, the emergency management policy has experienced various funding cuts. According to Haddow (16), the policy’s struggle for funding has intensified since 9/11. It is noted that funding for traditional technological and natural risk programs at FEMA has been cut at the federal level.
(2)
Planning for terrorism hazard is difficult based on the vagueness of the term it’s self. Terrorism hazard is challenging to plan for based on its differing motives, methods, and targets. The complexity of disentangling the projections within each of the kinds mentioned above makes planning practically problematic. The main challenge lies in the inability of planers to separate religious terrorists’ motivations from that of other terrorist groups. As confirmed by the United States Army commander, terrorism is motivated by three elements: religion, politics, and religion. Failure to figure out which motivational factor drives terrorist attacks stands as the main barrier for planers to plan well. Much as this has been highlighted, ever since the 9/11 terrorist disaster, the United States emergency management policy has been focused on the religiously motivated attack, most especially the Al Qaeda, one of the most elusive religious terrorist groups.
(3)
Based on the case study, the EM principles can help inform terrorism planning and responses by implementing the following two principles. 1) Guiding the community through a consensus-building process to identify all risks and make communities aware of such risks. 2) Reshaping the emergency management structures according to the hazard of terrorism.
Qn. 5
(1)
The hazard selected is flooding as a result of the persistent rainy season of August 1926-spring 1927. Generally, floods develop after a period of days of continuous rains. It can also occur due to prolonged rainfalls, onshore winds, snowmelts, and other causes, such as dam failures. For the case of 1926 occurrence, it was as a result of heavy and continuous rainfall. This hazard led to an economic loss of about 250million dollars by then and around 3.6 dollars in 2018. From January to March 1927, around 50k people got displaced; New Orleans alone had 15 inches of rain, necessitating additional floods. Besides, even the Mississippi River was greatly flooded.
(2)
With an emphasis on the chosen hazard, hoover and both present their views. According to Hoover, these were the days’ citizens were expected to take care of one another, given that they were all affected. Also, it had not occurred to them that this was the responsibility of the federal government. Based on Hoover’s approach, 154 refugee camps were created for 500k displaced people. 90% of these comprised of black Americans. Hoover notes that obvious to the conditions in “tent cities,” they became known in the first real holiday. He attests that Cajun people would only move when floods reached their beds. Packages meant for the displaced ended up on the hands of landlords. Despite being handed these packages for free, these very landlords charged tenants for relief packages handed to them freely. In Hoover’s claims, after the federal government got involved, not more than 3 people died in the floods (Henry, 9).
Contrary to Hoover’s idea of individuals taking care of each other during this disaster, Calvin Coolidge believes all disasters are issues of the state. The main role of the federal government during the occurrence of disasters is to promote relief. He notes that the Red Cross and other charities like NHRCR ought to lead in giving aid. In support of his argument, Calvin posits that in 1905, the Red Cross was granted a rare “Congressional Charter” that commissioned it as an agency responsible for carrying out national and international relief during the rimes of hazards like floods. It’s based on this argument that Calvin appointed Herbert Hoover to lead all actions geared towards relief. Hoover had a good reputation as a management genius and a fixer right from World War One. It is based on this reputation that Hoover was handed the mantle of power to deal with hazards.
(3)
I chose these two authors as the basis for my work because they present real facts considering the phenomenon at hand. While analyzing Hoover’s federal view on scientific management concerning relief, he notes that “the government gives aid as lies within its powers, but the real burden of caring for the displaced depends on the agency assigned by the state to provide such relief in disasters.” Here, he talks of the American Red Cross”. Based on state views, “unprecedented floods created a national emergency under which the American territories were covered to twenty feet in 24hours, with a population of 150,000, beyond the capacity of local and state agencies to offer relief and control services in Mississippi”. For this reason, efforts of national emergency organizations like the Red Cross were vital.
Works Cited
Haddow, G., and j. Bullock. “The Future of Emergency Management.” Institute for Crisis, Disaster, and Risk Management, George Washington University. Washington DC. Lecture.
Henry, D. G. “Introduction to Emergency Management.” 2020, Lecture.