An information system refers to the arrangement of computer software, hardware, and users to facilitate a convenient storage method, managing and retrieving related datasets. Information systems are usually installed to offer a simplified model of large data through user interfaces and dashboards that can be used to update the data. Standard networking protocols are deployed to ensure an effective data transmission between different subsystems that relay meaningful output to users at specific network nodes. They also require stringent security measures to protect sensitive data from alteration and manipulation through unauthorized access. Large organizations and other government facilities use web-based applications that support online transaction processes to offer convenient remote services that clients can access through any internet-enabled device, regardless of their demographics. These applications rely on distributed databases to retrieve relevant information that matches the users’ requests to enhance service delivery.
Developers and system analysts often deploy standard practices when undertaking software development projects that suit the user requirement specifications. The government of Ghana’s initiative to develop a health information system that serves patients in rural and urban centers can be implemented using the existing development approaches. The development techniques are usually chosen according to different factors that strive to address specific user needs. Since the idea is to have a system that offers uniform services across all the healthcare facilities in Ghana, a distributed database system can be used to implement the project. The most appropriate development approaches for installing the proposed system are the agile, waterfall, prototype, and rapid application development models.
The waterfall model provides pre-defined procedures and development stages that developers must follow throughout the project duration. This approach requires developers to complete one phase before proceeding to the next one. System requirements are always specified and analyzed according to the identified organizational needs that the system seeks to execute. Developers document the deliverables of each stage throughout the project duration. The waterfall model is suitable for projects with well-documented requirements with no ambiguity and unnecessary adjustments (Buchalcevova, 2018). It is ideal for short-term projects with fixed deadlines and specifications.
Fig. 1: The Waterfall Model
Agile development approaches focus on customer satisfaction by delivering the system’s iterative and incremental models. Each iteration produces a working software, with the final incremental build integrating all the customer’s features. This model is driven by principles that strive to address organizational needs differently. The principles are based on continuous delivery, the collaboration between developers, customer input, working prototypes, and response to urgent changes (Sabale and Dani, 2012). The model is suitable for long-term projects that may require the modification of requirements during the development lifecycle. It primarily focuses on the developers’ and programmers’ self-organization efforts through effective collaboration to deliver personalized systems.
Fig. 2: The Agile Development Model
In the prototyping model, developers release the system’s working models to seek customer feedback, which is then used to redefine the model. Prototypes focus on basic functionalities, which may include patient admissions, discharges, and billing. The approach seeks to meet user expectations gradually by delivering units with limited functions.
Fig. 3: The Prototype Model
The rapid application development technique involves the incremental delivery of functional units throughout the project timeframe. Developers can gather information from the medical staff in various hospitals to specify the system requirements. This approach also involves minimal planning, and the team always addresses additional needs before releasing the final version. This is usually achieved through the delivery of short iterative cycles.
Fig. 4: The Prototype Model
Requirements specification involves gathering, organizing, discussing, and negotiating specific features integrated into the proposed system. It also entails a feasibility study to estimate the project duration, employee morale towards the proposed system, technical features, and the approximate cost. This stage involves all stakeholders to ensure that the system meets all their expectations. Hospitals from different regions will give their views and state how they expect the proposed information system to facilitate operations at the branch level. The system analyst can collect such data through the following methods:
Interviews
One-on-one interviews provide detailed information on how the new system should be developed. The analyst can also conduct group interviews in different departments to understand the functionalities required to execute their daily duties. The hospital management, partners, and sponsors must also give their input. Interviews allow people to use different expressions that cannot be easily interpreted or illustrated through documentation. The analyst must make prior arrangements with all the respondents to ensure a successful transition between various stakeholder groups is consulted within the allocated timeframe.
System Documentation
The system analyst can collaborate with the ministry of health to acquire documentation from different hospitals integrated into the system. These may include payment receipts, contract agreements, employment terms, budgets, expenditures, and assets owned by each facility. This data is necessary for ensuring that each hospital retains its organizational processes, and those that lack specific amenities get the support required.
Direct Observations
Observations give analysts first-hand experience with the organizational processes that the proposed information system should support. Though this might consume considerable time, developers will fully understand all the operational requirements in each hospital. The analyst will also assess the current system’s user-friendliness and make the necessary improvements on any loopholes identified. Other factors that can be addressed through observation include connectivity, processing power, and the overall computational time for executing various tasks.
UML Diagrams
The use of a universal modeling language tool gives a simplified view of various organizational processes. UMLs are used to group multiple system components according to their attributes, user levels, and related functions. Data such as the patient’s diagnosis history, the visited facilities, and their current health status can be summarized using class diagrams. Activity diagrams show various procedures and how people interact with different interfaces in the system. This may include the admission, payment, and discharge processes with their respective personnel.
The COVID-19 period has compelled many businesses to either shut down or change their models to cope with the unforeseen changes that limited interactions. Some organizations have been forced to seek alternative methods, such as embracing online platforms to keep their services running. Dynamic system development methods such as agile and rapid application development techniques are usually implemented with a closer focus on coping with urgent changes. These might include developing web-based applications where customers can order their favorite commodities and deliver them at their doorstep. Though this might incur additional expenses to vendors, it is significant for maintaining relevance and good customer relations. On the other hand, rapid development methods anticipate such changes, and organizations usually allocate sufficient funds for handling these uncertainties. This benefits both the developers, stakeholders and consumers, as outlined below.
Advantages of Agile Methodologies
- Functional models are released earlier through continuous deployment and integration
- Its flexibility enables developers to focus on the most urgent sections
- The approach can accommodate urgent changes in the business model
- It prioritizes customer satisfaction by addressing all the latter’s input
- It enhances teamwork and collaboration amongst developers, users, and stakeholders
- It is a realistic approach that utilizes the most convenient strategies to respond to operational changes in the organization
Extreme programming (XP) is a radical agile development technique that primarily seeks to achieve customer satisfaction. Developers that deploy XP approaches often overlook the logical programming principles and strive to deliver the system that meets or exceeds user expectations. The engineers always brainstorm to figure out the most convenient ways of developing a dynamic system. This approach is usually based on five principles; rapid feedback, simplicity, incremental changes, customer input, and quality. This provides flexibility by allowing stakeholders to make urgent implementations according to various market metrics.
Advantages of Extreme Programming
- It primarily seeks to satisfy consumer needs by acting on their feedback
- Short-notice changes are implemented to enhance business continuity
- Programmers embrace code simplicity so that the system can be easily modified
- The business anticipates uncertainties and sets proper mitigation plans
Adaptive information systems project management is a dynamic development approach that allows developers to think innovatively through self-organization. Adaptive methods seek to relieve pressure on the teams by ensuring that they work under conducive environments under a moderate pace. An adaptive method deploys agile practices of collaboration, continuous integration, delivery, and accepting changes. Adaptive approaches ensure that projects are not canceled if the stakeholders run out of resources to facilitate full implementation. This ensures that projects withstand harsh economic seasons by suspending further operations until enough resources are available for resumption. Unlike traditional waterfall methods, an adaptive model allows consumers to regularly check the progress to see if there is a need for additional requirements. These approaches are suitable for long-term projects with no precise user specifications, allowing incremental assessment of the milestones achieved. Simplicity ensures that the project can easily be handed over to other developers if the initial team is unable to proceed due to unavoidable circumstances. Adaptive management styles are steadily gaining popularity due to ever-changing business needs.
Extreme information systems project management also urges developers to work collaboratively to deliver systems conveniently. Through extreme power, individual concerns can be addressed to ensure that their absence does not hinder other team members from progressing. This technique also anticipates uncertainties and establishes relevant countermeasures that can be implemented immediately to ensure continuity. Companies might initiate the hiring of new employees alongside the project lifecycle. Developers usually accept adding the new employees to the database even if it had already been finalized. This ensures that the company’s database remains updated by accommodating all the new changes.
In conclusion, an information system primarily strives to address specific organizational requirements. The most suitable approach should also address urgent business needs that may arise before the implementation stage. Besides the development lifecycle, the new system must also be dynamic enough to cope with consumer needs to maintain its relevance. This paper has established that both developers, end-users, and stakeholders must work collaboratively to ensure that the proposed system meets all their expectations.