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Roman Empire
Rome’s republican government form increased in instability due to its territory enlargement. Numerous problems occurred as a result of wealth increase and territory expansion. These varied from increasing discontent among the society’s lower class and military order breakdown. These resulted in the republic’s shakeup, and later, a new political system rose. Rome’s economic turmoil resulted from its growth that reflected negatively in the gap between the rich and poor that grew wider. The rich lived in massive estates while those enslaved – in thousands – worked on these estates. Those enslaved, by 100 B.C., formed about one-third of the nation’s population. Former soldiers opted to farm but still found it difficult competing with larger estates run by slave labor. Many of them opted to sell their land to the wealthy while some headed to Rome to seek employment.
Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were two brothers who attempted to help the poor by proposing reforms such as those that limited the estate sizes and those that gave the low land. This made them enemies, and soon after, they died violently; Gaius in 121 B.C. and Tiberius in 133 B.C. Shortly after their deaths, a civil war broke out.
As a result of the republic’s ever-growing turmoil, the once-loyal military experienced a breakdown where generals began seizing power via recruiting soldiers from the landless poor. This replaced soldiers who were loyal to the republic. Eventually, a military leader could take over by force with his troops’ help, which brings us to Julius Caesar (Niebuhr, 30). He took control in 60 B.C. by joining forces with Crassus and Pompey and was elected council in 59 B.C. As a trio, Rome was dominated by these men for the next ten years. Up until Caesar defied the court’s orders and marched his troops into Rome and in 44 B.C. was named dictator for life.
Soon after, he was betrayed by the senate and stabbed to death (Bryce, 50). After Caesar’s death, another civil war ensued but was later thwarted by Octavian, a relative of Caesar with Mark Antony and Lepidus’s help. Rome was at peace from Octavian’s rule in 27 B.C. to his death in 14 A.D., and soon after his death till 180 A.D. except for border fights from neighboring tribes. This period of Roman peace is known as the Pax Romana, where the Roman Empire spanned over 3 million square miles with a vast population that comprised a million people living in Rome and an overall population of between 60 to 80 million.
Rome’s sound government’s survival is thanks to Augustus – a title that Octavian accepted- who was the ablest emperor. He was responsible for stabilizing the frontier, erected splendid public buildings, set up the civil service, and created a government system that lasted centuries. During the time, the empire’s most important industry was agriculture as a majority, about 90 percent, of the citizens, were engaged in farming. Slavery was also an essential aspect of Rome’s life, as necessary for the economy (Fagan, 124). Worship was in God’s and Goddesses as religion was linked to the government until Christianity slowly arrived in the empire and spread throughout the empire. All in all, Rome was indeed an Empire that serves as a model of political control and model.
Annotated bibliography
- Bryce, James. The Holy Roman Empire. Jazzybee Verlag, 1877.
This book is among the few that focus on the origin to fall of the Roman Empire. Here, the empire’s important history is portrayed where the tribune’s power for life is handed to Caesar, followed by a perpetual dictatorship. Augustus becomes Rome’s dominion master, followed by the Roman army defeat. First Christian persecution under Nero is also portrayed in 64 AD, after which the empire is divided into four government areas upon which the east is described as a different realm.
- Fagan, G. The History of Ancient Rome Part 1. The Teaching Company Limited Partnership, 1999.
Using a series of lectures, Fagan portrays the main Roman history events in politics, society, and military as some cultural matters have also been of focus. The period from 1000BC to 500 A.D. has been referred to as ancient Rome where the priority is given to the period between 300 B.C. and 300 A.D., a brief display of the late antiquity – between 300 to 500 A.D. Fagan examines the expansion of Rome from a tiny hamlet overlooking the Tibet river through to colossus that dominated the Mediterranean basin.
- Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, The History of Rome. Vol. 1. Lea & Blanchard, 1844
A system of lectures is yet again used by Niebuhr, where he describes the roman republic conditions and Julius Caesar, his exile and return, and a sketch of his wars in Gaul. An outbreak of the civil war and the dictatorship of Caesar, his triumphs, and calendar reforms, is well portrayed within the lectures. Niebuhr also shows Pompey fleeing to Egypt as well as his death. Octavian is also well represented in the studies with his return to Italy.