Migration and mental well-being
Psychological impacts have everything to do with the state of the mind of the children who remain behind when their parents leave to seek for economic survival in other countries. In a study conducted by Fellmeth et al. (2018) on both South East Asia and Latino children on the effects of out-migration, the psychological impact was most significant. The study reports that “Compared with children of non-migrants, left-behind children and adolescents had an increased risk of depression, suicidal ideation, and risk of anxiety” (Fellmeth et al., 2018: 2568). The explanation for the psychological effects on the children is that they lack the parental support system that can guide them through their daily lives. This study is backed by another one conducted by Graham & Jordan (2011) on children in the Philippines. Graham & Jordan (2011) borrows from other studies such as (Asis, 2006; ECMICBCP/AOS – Manila, SMC, & OWWA, 2004). These four studies come to a consensus that “In the Philippines, the migration of mothers has fueled worries about left-behind children becoming spendthrift, delinquent, addicted to drugs, and emotionally scarred” (Graham & Jordan 2011:766). Consequently, it is evident that children are significantly affected when mothers leave to work abroad.
Further studies conducted by Graham & Jordan (2011) on the CHAMPSEA study included children from not only Thailand but from Indonesia, the Philippines, and Vietnam as well. The result of the study by Graham & Jordan (2011) indicates that “Psychological outcomes may be affected by sociocultural contexts in countries of origin, especially where local social norms favoring extended-family involvement in childrearing challenge models of attachment devised in Euro-American settings” (Pg 766). The outcome of this study, therefore, gives an indication of how migration, even of a single parent, significantly affects a child’s mental status. The remedy of the findings Graham & Jordan (2011) is shown to be children raised by the whole extended family who show a pattern of psychological stability. The varying research results derived from CHAMPSEA are indicative of the individualized context of each country that participated in the study, which yielded their respective results. A further study by Jordan & Graham (2012) sought to establish the psychological effects of migration on children. This study emphasized that “children of mother migrants also appeared to have poorer psychological well-being, with more reporting themselves as being unhappy, anxious, and lonely” (Pg 1674). These two studies are backed by a similar conducted on Chinese children by Zhao et al. (2017). In the study, Zhao et al. (2017) conclude that “adverse experiences related to parental absence in early childhood, such as disruption of parent-child communication and attachment relationship, have long-term negative psychological impacts” (Pg 674). All these studies also disagree with the notion that strong socioeconomic status might present a buffer to the psychological effects of parental migration. Subsequently, the only remedy provided is to ensure that children are availed guardians in case the parents are not around.
Further studies conducted both in the CHAMPSEA project and from the Latino region support an existing causation effect between migration and mental well-being. Among the studies the provide evidence include Adhikari et al. (2013), which state that “research has found a higher incidence of mental disorders and impeded social and psychological development among the children left behind” (783). This study is supplemented by that of Lu (2014), which was conducted on the Mexican left-behind children and emphasized the importance of ensuring that mothers do not migrate. The study explains that the absence of mothers is significantly felt by children more than that of fathers by insisting that “the absence of mothers tends to incur substantial disruptions in everyday life and maybe more detrimental for children” (Lu, 2014: 1087). The study relates to the mental strength of children to constant encouragement from parents, especially mothers. Subsequently, in the absence of parents, the children lack the motivation that most of them often get from their parents. The buffer for the findings of these studies is to try as much as possible to limit the out-migration of mothers as they are viewed as the primary caregivers.
Financial Impact
Most studies, especially under the Child Health and Migrant Parents in Southeast Asia (CHAMPSEA), show that there are positive financial impacts on the international migration of parents. All these studies, as led by Fellmeth et al. (2018), Nobles (2013), Adhikari et al. (2013), both base the financial impacts of migration on the remittances. A study conducted by Adhikari et al. (2013) on earlier works by (Massey et al. 1993 and Stark et al. 1991) emphasizes that most of these studies “found that the remittances received from migration could support the family left behind by minimizing economic risk and overcoming capital constraints” (Adhikari et al., 2013: 783). The remittances are essential, especially for the economy of their country of origin. Most economies of countries such as Mexico, Thailand, the Philippines, and Indonesia depend so much on the remittances of their citizens who work abroad. Fellmeth et al. (2018) report that “International migrants send an estimated US$613 billion per year in remittances to their countries of origin” (Pg 2569). The impact of these remittances is that they boost the financial stability of the household lives, thus improving their living standards. On the part of the children, they benefit from the remittances, which are essential for their education.
The sizeable remittances back to the family ensure that the health care and the well-being of the young people who remain behind are adequately catered for, and stability is certain. In the case of Latino children, Nobles (2013) reports that “now a substantial proportion of the Mexican population, reach adulthood ultimately advantaged by remittances and regional development gains remains an important subject for future research” (Pg 1314). The children with migrant parents, therefore, have a better opportunity at financial independence as compared to those children with non-migrant parents.
Subsequently, it is a general consensus that the financial aspect of out-migration is mainly positive. However, it is not all positive, as Noble (2013) reports that “remittances are often important but incomplete substitutes for the emotional, caregiving, and disciplinary roles filled by coresident parents” (1307). The remittances cannot be used to cover up the shortcomings that are occasioned by the absence of parents.
In most regions of South East Asia, a study by Jordan (2012) provides evidence of the financial impacts of remittances from abroad. The study analyzes earlier research conducted by other scholars such as (Gulati, 1993; Hadi, 1999; Sofranko & Idris, 1999) (Jordan & Graham, 2012: 1673). The studies come to a consensus that there are “rising standards of living for households that receive remittances from migrant family laborers” (Graham & Jordan, 2012: 1673). However, it is crucial to note that remittances in themselves do not provide insulation to the general absence of the parents, especially in low-income families. This aspect is noted by Graham & Jordan (2011) that “in lower-income countries, the material gains as a result of international remittances may not replace the emotional loss of parental separation” (Pg 1673). In the case of financial impacts, there is a strong caveat as to the possible negative impacts that are associated with it. That is the point that Asis & Ruiz-Marave (2015) tries to emphasize. In their study Asis & Ruiz-Marave (2015) state that the remittances might serve as buffers to the absence of the parents but do not wholly support healthy child development. Asis & Ruiz-Marave (2015) point out that “remittances are seen as enhancing the children’s material well-being, but on the other hand, the parental absence is perceived to deprive children of emotional support and care that are detrimental to the children’s welfare” (350). The financial impact of migration children is, therefore, a complex issue that requires an effective solution such as having a guardian to manage both the remittances and the holistic growth of the children.
Educational Impact
Another area significantly affected by the out-migration of parents is education. Most studies show that the education of the children forms a significant reason that causes parental out-migration. However, the absence of parents in the lives of their children has stunted educational growth. An evaluation of other previous studies by Lu (2014) show that “parent–child separation has substantial adverse effects on children’s education, cognitive development, and psychological well-being” (Amato & Cheadle, 2005; McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994 as cited in Lu, 2014 Pg 1085). However, there are also positive impacts of out-migration on both the children and the native country. Fellmeth et al. (2018) state that “material benefits and greater income security from remittances might be expected to confer improvements in health and facilitate access to health care and education” (2568). The money remitted by the parents who are abroad is crucial for the studies of the children left behind. The children can, therefore, afford to attend schools and study. Meng & Yamuchi (2015) contend that it is never a guarantee that the money would ensure the education of the children. Meng & Yamuchi (2015) thus states that “Although parental migration often brings higher income and hence potentially more economic resources for children’s education and health investment, lack of parental care can also have adverse effects on left-behind children” (Pg 2). These adverse effects are provided in a study conducted by Nobles (2013), who states that the absence of parents in the lives of their children leads to a “lower probability of attending high school, fewer completed years of schooling, a reduction in study hours and a higher probability of behavioral problems” (1304). The education life of a child needs a lot of parental involvement, and without it, education can be compromised.
Parents also assist children in setting objectives, and dreams need for future growth. Studies show that children with non-migrant parents tend to be more focused and disciplined in school as compared to those with migrant parents. Halpern-Manners (2011) conducted further studies on the “effects of migrant parents on the education process of their children” (Pg 73). The studies majorly concentrated on Latino children, especially those from Mexico who were found to be motivated by the sacrifices made by the parents to travel abroad to look for better economic solutions. However, the same study conducted by Halpern-Manners (2011) on Mexican children showed that “children may shift their time into home production, resulting in interruptions in their schooling and potential declines in educational attainment” (Pg 77). The results of these behaviors were credited to the lack of the figure of authority to align the children with the tenets of discipline required to concentrate in school. Consequently, the performances of the children were diluted by the flagrant behaviors and lack of discipline.
Lu (2014) also conducted research on the effects migration had on the children, especially of Latino and South-East Asian Origin. Lu (2014) tries to find a connection between parental availability and a child’s school performance. To that effect, he states that “Parental availability and engagement in children’s lives improves children’s educational outcomes, even after ability and family background are taken into account” (Lu, 2014: 1083). Subsequently, the unavailability of parents is likely to adversely affect the cognitive progression of the children of migrant parents. The adverse effects range from a lack of concentration in studies to absenteeism from school activities. The resultant effect is that the academic and cognitive growth of the children is stunted.
Social Impact
The social impacts of out-migration by parents on children are spearheaded by studies from the South East Asia nations. Among the contributors to this study include Asis & Ruiz-Marave (2015), who conducted a study among the children in the Philipines whose parents left them behind. Asis & Ruiz-Marave (2015), carried research under the CHAMPSEA project on the impacts of out-movement of parents on the children. The study states that most children are certain to take socialization lessons from those that take care of them to play the role of their parents. As a result, most of the children end up not learning their cultural socialization processes. Asis & Ruiz-Marave (2015) state that parents leave the children at the hands of their relatives, and mostly the children are likely to be raised similarly as the parents would have if they were around. Lu (2014) states that “potential beneficial impact of migration is largely overshadowed by the social costs of family separation” (1090). Some of the hidden social costs of migration include the lack of parental supervision that teaches them how to manage their emotional expectations, especially within social institutions. Children thus end up lacking the right manners and behaviors that are needed to interact with people in society.
The absence of the parents also creates a social vacuum forcing the children to grow up so fast, thus missing crucial parts of their childhood. Children in families where the parents are absent have the responsibility of taking care of both themselves and those of their siblings. Another study by Lu (2012) considered the impact of migration on the social support of left-behinds adults in Indonesia. This study focused on the relationship between stress, social support, and health outcomes, by emphasizing that “stress is conceptualized as a socially embedded process with important consequences for mental and physical well-being” (Lin and Ensel, 1989; Aneshensel, 1992, as cited in Lu, 2012, p.137). Accordingly, the results of this study indicate left-behind adults are at an elevated risk for stress-induced physical and mental health conditions. A buffer to these detrimental effects was found when adults had strong social support from extended family. Zhao et al. (2017) carried out research on the social welfare of children who remain behind in China by migrating parents. The outcomes of the research prove that there are long term effects on children in lines of interactions with people. The interaction process is significantly affected by families where parents migrate abroad.